Judicial Scrutiny: 📌M.R. Balaji [1963]- Upheld Reservations Emphasised a reasonable duration for reservations. 📌Indra Sawhney [1992] reinforced time-bound affirmative action. 📌Ashoka Kumar Thakur [2008]: The SC upheld reservations but stressed the need for periodic review.
Key Provisions: Extended SC/ST seat reservations in LS & State Assemblies. Extended the President/Governor’s power to nominate Anglo-Indians. Constitutional Basis: Rooted in Article 14 Enabled by Article 15(4). Aligns with Article 46 (promotion of SC/ST interests)
The 8th Amendment? [Enacted on Jan 5, 1960.] ▪️Amends Art 334 of the Constitution. ▪️Extended reservation of seats for SCs/STs in Parliament & SL. ▪️Extended Anglo-Indian nominations. Champakam Dorairajan [1951]- The SC has upheld reservations as a facet of equality.
Re Berubari Union (1960) SC clarified that cession of territory post-reorganisation requires a constitutional amendment u/n Art 368, reinforcing the 7th Amendment’s impact on territorial integrity. St WB v. UOI (1963) affirmed the Union’s supremacy in federal matters.
Impact: Strengthened India's linguistic diversity. Simplified governance by removing complex state classifications. The SC in R.C. Poudyal (1994) upheld linguistic reorganisation as consistent with India’s federal ethos, balancing unity and diversity.
High Courts Reorganisation Amended Articles 214–231 to align HC with new state boundaries. Enabled common High Courts for multiple states. Empowered Parliament to establish HCs for UTs. St of Punjab v. Baldev Singh (1999) – Affirmed High Court jurisdiction post-reorganisation.
Redefined territory updating 1st & 4th Schedules for 14 states & 6 UTs. Adjusted RS seats for new states Art 3: Strengthened Parliament’s power to alter state boundaries, names, ensuring federal flexibility. Golaknath [1967] reinforced Parliament’s amendment powers u/n Art 368.
7th Constitutional Amendment [Enacted on October 19, 1956] The SRA, 1956, restructured India’s federal framework to align with linguistic & administrative realities, implementing the States Reorganisation Commission’s recommendations. It, which abolished Part A, B, C, & D state classifications.
Key Features Protected [It’s not defined exhaustively, but includes] Supremacy of the Constitution Rule of Law Fundamental Rights Federalism Independence of the Judiciary Parliament’s power to amend is NOT absolute. Minerva Mills[1980]– Limited amending power is basic structure.
Exception In Kesavananda Bharati (1973) SC ruled that Parliament cannot amend the "basic structure" of the Constitution. This limits Article 368’s scope. Indira Gandhi Case (1975): SC struck down the 39th Amendment’s clause shielding election disputes of PM from judicial review.
Amendment Procedure: Bill introduced in either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. Requires 2/3rd majority of members present & voting. 50% of total members must be present. Types of Amendments 1️⃣Simple majority 2️⃣ Special majority 3️⃣ Special majority + ratification by half the states
Article 368 of the Constitution 🇮🇳 Found in Part XX, Article 368 outlines the procedure for amending the Constitution. It allows Parliament to add, amend, or repeal provisions to adapt to changing times while maintaining stability. Ensuring it remains a living document.
Atiabari Tea (1961) This case tested the waters. The SC clarified that while Parliament now controlled inter-state trade taxes, any state laws impeding free trade could violate Art 301 (freedom of trade). The 6th Amendment balanced federal powers without stifling commerce.
⚖️GVK Industries [2017] The SC upheld Parliament’s authority over inter-state trade taxation. Bengal Immunity Co. Ltd. 1955) ⚖️This case was a wake-up call! The SC held that states had no power to tax interstate sales under Art 286, as it fell under Parliament’s domain.
The 6th Amendment was a stepping stone for centralised tax regimes, such as GST, introduced via the 101st Amendment in 2016. By resolving interstate tax conflicts through a unified tax system. The CSTA, 1956, enacted post-amendment, operationalised these changes!
Art. 269: Empowered Parliament to tax interstate sales; revenue goes to States. Art. 286: Restricted States from taxing interstate, avoiding overlaps. Entry 92A, List I: Gives the Centre power to tax interstate sales. Entry 54, List II: Limits state taxation to intrastate sales.
The 6th Constitutional Amendment [Sep 11, 1956] It amended Art. 286 & the 7th Schedule to clarify the Union’s authority over interstate trade. Addressed chaotic state taxation of interstate sales, ensuring fiscal uniformity & economic efficiency, as recommended by the TEC [1953].
Legal Balance The amendment harmonised: State consultation with national efficiency. Federal principles with central authority. Governance of diverse regions.
Why It Matters Shapes state identities. Balances regional and national interests. Upholds India’s federal ethos.
Historical Context India faced a complex map of over 550 princely states & provinces: Linguistic and cultural demands necessitated reorganisation. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, required a robust Article 3. The 5th Amendment provided the legal framework for swift action.
The 5th Amendment Enacted on December 26, 1955, it amended Art 3 to streamline state reorganisation: Empowered Parliament to alter state boundaries, names, or areas. Authorises the Prez to set a deadline for the state. Prevented delays in reorganisation.
Bela Banerjee (1954) Held: The term “compensation” in Art 31 means fair compensation. SC struck down the land acquisition law for giving inadequate compensation. R.C. Cooper [1970] SC reopened the compensation issue indirectly, can’t take away the essence of fundamental rights.
Key Changes ✔️Art 31(2): Redefined compensation for property acquisition. ✔️Article 31A: Expanded to protect a wider range of laws from being challenged u/n Articles 14 & 19. ✔️Ninth Schedule: Beefed up to include more state laws, making them immune to judicial review.
4th Constitutional Amendment 🇮🇳 Enacted on April 27, 1955. Its core aim: ▪️Bolster the state’s power to acquire private property for public purposes.. ▪️Protect land reform laws from judicial scrutiny ▪️Shield select laws in the Ninth Schedule from judicial review.
