We find that pro-migration people view Muslims as moderate, while anti-migration people view them as inherently strongly religious.

We argue that polarization surrounding Muslims and Islam in Europe may stem from different segments of society having different understandings of what a Muslim is.

Applying a split-sample survey, we show that there is considerable scepticism towards strongly religious Muslims, but also towards strongly religious Christians

Still, there is considerably scepticism towards Muslim faith in general. Other figures also show widespread scepticism towards Islam