International Cryosphere Climate Initiative
@iccinet.bsky.social
ICCI is a network of senior policy experts and researchers aiming to spread cryosphere science and preserve the cryosphere's key role in Earth's climate system.
How can cryosphere science shape climate policy?
AMI Chief Science Advisor Dr. James Kirkham explains how cryosphere science can inform UN climate negotiations, build political ambition, and help protect melting snow and ice at a critical moment for climate action.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyfD...
AMI Chief Science Advisor Dr. James Kirkham explains how cryosphere science can inform UN climate negotiations, build political ambition, and help protect melting snow and ice at a critical moment for climate action.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyfD...
January 30, 2026 at 4:57 PM
How can cryosphere science shape climate policy?
AMI Chief Science Advisor Dr. James Kirkham explains how cryosphere science can inform UN climate negotiations, build political ambition, and help protect melting snow and ice at a critical moment for climate action.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyfD...
AMI Chief Science Advisor Dr. James Kirkham explains how cryosphere science can inform UN climate negotiations, build political ambition, and help protect melting snow and ice at a critical moment for climate action.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyfD...
Globally:
Glacier loss under 1.5°C is projected to peak around 2040, maxing out at ~2,000 glaciers lost per year.
Peak glacier loss under 4.0°C would culminate in the mid-2050s at ~4,000 glaciers per year, equivalent to losing the entire glacier population of the European Alps in just one year.
Glacier loss under 1.5°C is projected to peak around 2040, maxing out at ~2,000 glaciers lost per year.
Peak glacier loss under 4.0°C would culminate in the mid-2050s at ~4,000 glaciers per year, equivalent to losing the entire glacier population of the European Alps in just one year.
December 15, 2025 at 11:04 PM
Globally:
Glacier loss under 1.5°C is projected to peak around 2040, maxing out at ~2,000 glaciers lost per year.
Peak glacier loss under 4.0°C would culminate in the mid-2050s at ~4,000 glaciers per year, equivalent to losing the entire glacier population of the European Alps in just one year.
Glacier loss under 1.5°C is projected to peak around 2040, maxing out at ~2,000 glaciers lost per year.
Peak glacier loss under 4.0°C would culminate in the mid-2050s at ~4,000 glaciers per year, equivalent to losing the entire glacier population of the European Alps in just one year.
Over 45,000 glaciers in the western US and Canada will shrink by 70% by 2100 even if global temperature rise is limited to 1.5°C. Their loss rises to 90% under 2.7°C.
In central Europe, about 87% of today’s 3,000 glaciers will disappear under 1.5°C, but they almost completely vanish under 2.7°C.
In central Europe, about 87% of today’s 3,000 glaciers will disappear under 1.5°C, but they almost completely vanish under 2.7°C.
December 15, 2025 at 11:04 PM
Over 45,000 glaciers in the western US and Canada will shrink by 70% by 2100 even if global temperature rise is limited to 1.5°C. Their loss rises to 90% under 2.7°C.
In central Europe, about 87% of today’s 3,000 glaciers will disappear under 1.5°C, but they almost completely vanish under 2.7°C.
In central Europe, about 87% of today’s 3,000 glaciers will disappear under 1.5°C, but they almost completely vanish under 2.7°C.
Rising temperatures could to lead to the loss of thousands of glaciers per year, with up to ~4,000 vanishing annually under high emissions.
1.5°C could halve this loss 🧵
@landervt.bsky.social @harryzeko.bsky.social @matthias-huss.bsky.social @davidrounce.bsky.social @lilianschuster.bsky.social
1.5°C could halve this loss 🧵
@landervt.bsky.social @harryzeko.bsky.social @matthias-huss.bsky.social @davidrounce.bsky.social @lilianschuster.bsky.social
December 15, 2025 at 11:04 PM
Rising temperatures could to lead to the loss of thousands of glaciers per year, with up to ~4,000 vanishing annually under high emissions.
1.5°C could halve this loss 🧵
@landervt.bsky.social @harryzeko.bsky.social @matthias-huss.bsky.social @davidrounce.bsky.social @lilianschuster.bsky.social
1.5°C could halve this loss 🧵
@landervt.bsky.social @harryzeko.bsky.social @matthias-huss.bsky.social @davidrounce.bsky.social @lilianschuster.bsky.social
Join us at UNEA-7 this Thursday Dec. 11 on International Mountain Day:
Moderated by @unep.org's Mr. Lewis Pugh, the event will focus on cryosphere changes, regional solutions for mountain ecosystems, and frameworks for assessing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
🔗 Livestream below!
Moderated by @unep.org's Mr. Lewis Pugh, the event will focus on cryosphere changes, regional solutions for mountain ecosystems, and frameworks for assessing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
🔗 Livestream below!
December 10, 2025 at 4:53 PM
Join us at UNEA-7 this Thursday Dec. 11 on International Mountain Day:
Moderated by @unep.org's Mr. Lewis Pugh, the event will focus on cryosphere changes, regional solutions for mountain ecosystems, and frameworks for assessing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
🔗 Livestream below!
Moderated by @unep.org's Mr. Lewis Pugh, the event will focus on cryosphere changes, regional solutions for mountain ecosystems, and frameworks for assessing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
🔗 Livestream below!
Reflections on COP30 Global Mutirão final decision text:
November 22, 2025 at 3:36 PM
Reflections on COP30 Global Mutirão final decision text:
Tomorrow at #COP30 and online @rahmstorf.bsky.social will present latest AMOC science & potential impacts of shutdown
The event will be chaired by Minister Johannsson of Iceland and will include perspectives from representatives of Ireland, UK, Canada, and Finland
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
🧪🌊
The event will be chaired by Minister Johannsson of Iceland and will include perspectives from representatives of Ireland, UK, Canada, and Finland
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
🧪🌊
November 19, 2025 at 8:27 PM
Tomorrow at #COP30 and online @rahmstorf.bsky.social will present latest AMOC science & potential impacts of shutdown
The event will be chaired by Minister Johannsson of Iceland and will include perspectives from representatives of Ireland, UK, Canada, and Finland
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
🧪🌊
The event will be chaired by Minister Johannsson of Iceland and will include perspectives from representatives of Ireland, UK, Canada, and Finland
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
🧪🌊
For anyone at #COP30 today or online, the Cryosphere Pavilion is hosting a quiz at 6.30 pm today!
Come and test how much you know about the Earth's frozen regions and their relevance for the negotiations happening live in Belem!
Come and test how much you know about the Earth's frozen regions and their relevance for the negotiations happening live in Belem!
November 19, 2025 at 6:11 PM
For anyone at #COP30 today or online, the Cryosphere Pavilion is hosting a quiz at 6.30 pm today!
Come and test how much you know about the Earth's frozen regions and their relevance for the negotiations happening live in Belem!
Come and test how much you know about the Earth's frozen regions and their relevance for the negotiations happening live in Belem!
Week 2 of the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion is underway!
Key themes include thresholds and tipping points (Monday), adaptation in alpine glacier regions (Tuesday), ice sheets and sea-level rise (Wednesday), sea ice (Thursday), and pathways to 1.5°C (Friday).
Full schedule iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Key themes include thresholds and tipping points (Monday), adaptation in alpine glacier regions (Tuesday), ice sheets and sea-level rise (Wednesday), sea ice (Thursday), and pathways to 1.5°C (Friday).
Full schedule iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
November 18, 2025 at 10:09 PM
Week 2 of the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion is underway!
Key themes include thresholds and tipping points (Monday), adaptation in alpine glacier regions (Tuesday), ice sheets and sea-level rise (Wednesday), sea ice (Thursday), and pathways to 1.5°C (Friday).
Full schedule iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Key themes include thresholds and tipping points (Monday), adaptation in alpine glacier regions (Tuesday), ice sheets and sea-level rise (Wednesday), sea ice (Thursday), and pathways to 1.5°C (Friday).
Full schedule iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Next week’s themes include:
• Thresholds & Tipping Points – Nov. 17
• Glaciers & Snow Financing – Nov. 18
• Ice Sheets – Nov. 19
• Sea Ice – Nov. 20
• Feasible Pathways to 1.5°C – Nov. 21
Full Cryosphere Pavilion schedule: iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
See you on Monday for Week 2!
• Thresholds & Tipping Points – Nov. 17
• Glaciers & Snow Financing – Nov. 18
• Ice Sheets – Nov. 19
• Sea Ice – Nov. 20
• Feasible Pathways to 1.5°C – Nov. 21
Full Cryosphere Pavilion schedule: iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
See you on Monday for Week 2!
November 15, 2025 at 11:05 PM
Next week’s themes include:
• Thresholds & Tipping Points – Nov. 17
• Glaciers & Snow Financing – Nov. 18
• Ice Sheets – Nov. 19
• Sea Ice – Nov. 20
• Feasible Pathways to 1.5°C – Nov. 21
Full Cryosphere Pavilion schedule: iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
See you on Monday for Week 2!
• Thresholds & Tipping Points – Nov. 17
• Glaciers & Snow Financing – Nov. 18
• Ice Sheets – Nov. 19
• Sea Ice – Nov. 20
• Feasible Pathways to 1.5°C – Nov. 21
Full Cryosphere Pavilion schedule: iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
See you on Monday for Week 2!
Week 1 of #COP30 is a wrap in Belém.
Today’s events highlighted global links between glaciers, water security, climate finance, and ecosystem resilience — from Andes adaptation and glacier-risk financing to Amazon-cryosphere connections.
Missed an event? All sessions available at: lnkd.in/g4xgPcgf
Today’s events highlighted global links between glaciers, water security, climate finance, and ecosystem resilience — from Andes adaptation and glacier-risk financing to Amazon-cryosphere connections.
Missed an event? All sessions available at: lnkd.in/g4xgPcgf
November 15, 2025 at 11:05 PM
Week 1 of #COP30 is a wrap in Belém.
Today’s events highlighted global links between glaciers, water security, climate finance, and ecosystem resilience — from Andes adaptation and glacier-risk financing to Amazon-cryosphere connections.
Missed an event? All sessions available at: lnkd.in/g4xgPcgf
Today’s events highlighted global links between glaciers, water security, climate finance, and ecosystem resilience — from Andes adaptation and glacier-risk financing to Amazon-cryosphere connections.
Missed an event? All sessions available at: lnkd.in/g4xgPcgf
HAPPENING TODAY
The Perils of Ignoring Science and 1.5°C at #COP30: Tipping Points in the Cryosphere, Their Impacts & How to Avoid Them
📍 COP30 Blue Zone, Side Event Room 9, Area C
⏰ 15:00-16:30 BRT, Nov. 14
Dr. Chris Stokes, Dr. James Kirkham, Dr. Bill Hare, Dr. Norma Shorty, Dr. Al-Saiful Islam
The Perils of Ignoring Science and 1.5°C at #COP30: Tipping Points in the Cryosphere, Their Impacts & How to Avoid Them
📍 COP30 Blue Zone, Side Event Room 9, Area C
⏰ 15:00-16:30 BRT, Nov. 14
Dr. Chris Stokes, Dr. James Kirkham, Dr. Bill Hare, Dr. Norma Shorty, Dr. Al-Saiful Islam
November 14, 2025 at 11:11 AM
HAPPENING TODAY
The Perils of Ignoring Science and 1.5°C at #COP30: Tipping Points in the Cryosphere, Their Impacts & How to Avoid Them
📍 COP30 Blue Zone, Side Event Room 9, Area C
⏰ 15:00-16:30 BRT, Nov. 14
Dr. Chris Stokes, Dr. James Kirkham, Dr. Bill Hare, Dr. Norma Shorty, Dr. Al-Saiful Islam
The Perils of Ignoring Science and 1.5°C at #COP30: Tipping Points in the Cryosphere, Their Impacts & How to Avoid Them
📍 COP30 Blue Zone, Side Event Room 9, Area C
⏰ 15:00-16:30 BRT, Nov. 14
Dr. Chris Stokes, Dr. James Kirkham, Dr. Bill Hare, Dr. Norma Shorty, Dr. Al-Saiful Islam
⬇️ LAUNCHED TODAY ⬇️
State of the Cryosphere Report 2025
Over 50 leading cryosphere scientists warn that current climate commitments, leading the world to well over 2°C, spell disaster for billions from global ice loss – but that damage can still be prevented.
Read here:
iccinet.org/statecryo25/
State of the Cryosphere Report 2025
Over 50 leading cryosphere scientists warn that current climate commitments, leading the world to well over 2°C, spell disaster for billions from global ice loss – but that damage can still be prevented.
Read here:
iccinet.org/statecryo25/
November 13, 2025 at 11:06 PM
⬇️ LAUNCHED TODAY ⬇️
State of the Cryosphere Report 2025
Over 50 leading cryosphere scientists warn that current climate commitments, leading the world to well over 2°C, spell disaster for billions from global ice loss – but that damage can still be prevented.
Read here:
iccinet.org/statecryo25/
State of the Cryosphere Report 2025
Over 50 leading cryosphere scientists warn that current climate commitments, leading the world to well over 2°C, spell disaster for billions from global ice loss – but that damage can still be prevented.
Read here:
iccinet.org/statecryo25/
Happening now!
Annual report on 2025 updates in Earth's frozen regions finds concerning losses over the past decade, and much larger preventable losses this century based on decisions made at UN climate summit #COP30 and beyond.
@geogdurham.bsky.social @iies.su.se @bolincentre.bsky.social @awi.de
Annual report on 2025 updates in Earth's frozen regions finds concerning losses over the past decade, and much larger preventable losses this century based on decisions made at UN climate summit #COP30 and beyond.
@geogdurham.bsky.social @iies.su.se @bolincentre.bsky.social @awi.de
November 13, 2025 at 9:55 PM
Happening now!
Annual report on 2025 updates in Earth's frozen regions finds concerning losses over the past decade, and much larger preventable losses this century based on decisions made at UN climate summit #COP30 and beyond.
@geogdurham.bsky.social @iies.su.se @bolincentre.bsky.social @awi.de
Annual report on 2025 updates in Earth's frozen regions finds concerning losses over the past decade, and much larger preventable losses this century based on decisions made at UN climate summit #COP30 and beyond.
@geogdurham.bsky.social @iies.su.se @bolincentre.bsky.social @awi.de
Information for journalists at COP30:
TODAY 6:30pm, Thurs Nov. 13 | Media briefing on the State of the Cryosphere Report 2025 and its relevance for COP30 negotiations.
Join in person or online: www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_Gw...
🚨 Cryosphere Pavilion (left of main hallway, behind UNFCCC Pavilion)
TODAY 6:30pm, Thurs Nov. 13 | Media briefing on the State of the Cryosphere Report 2025 and its relevance for COP30 negotiations.
Join in person or online: www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_Gw...
🚨 Cryosphere Pavilion (left of main hallway, behind UNFCCC Pavilion)
November 13, 2025 at 5:56 PM
Information for journalists at COP30:
TODAY 6:30pm, Thurs Nov. 13 | Media briefing on the State of the Cryosphere Report 2025 and its relevance for COP30 negotiations.
Join in person or online: www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_Gw...
🚨 Cryosphere Pavilion (left of main hallway, behind UNFCCC Pavilion)
TODAY 6:30pm, Thurs Nov. 13 | Media briefing on the State of the Cryosphere Report 2025 and its relevance for COP30 negotiations.
Join in person or online: www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_Gw...
🚨 Cryosphere Pavilion (left of main hallway, behind UNFCCC Pavilion)
The COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion will host more three dozen side events over the next two weeks.
Our team of Early Career Scientists (all PhD and postdoctoral level) will help introduce speakers and explain the latest science.
Join in person or watch virtually! ❄️
youtube.com/@iccinet
Our team of Early Career Scientists (all PhD and postdoctoral level) will help introduce speakers and explain the latest science.
Join in person or watch virtually! ❄️
youtube.com/@iccinet
November 13, 2025 at 3:21 PM
The COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion will host more three dozen side events over the next two weeks.
Our team of Early Career Scientists (all PhD and postdoctoral level) will help introduce speakers and explain the latest science.
Join in person or watch virtually! ❄️
youtube.com/@iccinet
Our team of Early Career Scientists (all PhD and postdoctoral level) will help introduce speakers and explain the latest science.
Join in person or watch virtually! ❄️
youtube.com/@iccinet
Happening now at the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Warming of 1.5°C is Too High for Polar Ice Sheets
➡️ Join live: www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzkW...
"Ice sheet contributions to sea-level rises have quadrupled since he 1990s, even under 1.2°C of warming," says Dr. Chris Stokes @geogdurham.bsky.social
Warming of 1.5°C is Too High for Polar Ice Sheets
➡️ Join live: www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzkW...
"Ice sheet contributions to sea-level rises have quadrupled since he 1990s, even under 1.2°C of warming," says Dr. Chris Stokes @geogdurham.bsky.social
November 13, 2025 at 1:39 PM
Happening now at the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Warming of 1.5°C is Too High for Polar Ice Sheets
➡️ Join live: www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzkW...
"Ice sheet contributions to sea-level rises have quadrupled since he 1990s, even under 1.2°C of warming," says Dr. Chris Stokes @geogdurham.bsky.social
Warming of 1.5°C is Too High for Polar Ice Sheets
➡️ Join live: www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzkW...
"Ice sheet contributions to sea-level rises have quadrupled since he 1990s, even under 1.2°C of warming," says Dr. Chris Stokes @geogdurham.bsky.social
Welcome to Day 3 of #COP30! Today’s focus: Polar Oceans 🌊❄️ Policy experts, scientists & Indigenous voices highlighted how safeguarding the cryosphere is vital to keeping 1.5°C within reach and ensuring a stable climate for all.
#Cryosphere #ClimateAction #Arctic #Glaciers #OceanProtection
#Cryosphere #ClimateAction #Arctic #Glaciers #OceanProtection
November 13, 2025 at 1:00 AM
Welcome to Day 3 of #COP30! Today’s focus: Polar Oceans 🌊❄️ Policy experts, scientists & Indigenous voices highlighted how safeguarding the cryosphere is vital to keeping 1.5°C within reach and ensuring a stable climate for all.
#Cryosphere #ClimateAction #Arctic #Glaciers #OceanProtection
#Cryosphere #ClimateAction #Arctic #Glaciers #OceanProtection
This morning’s session at the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion discussed the impacts of black carbon in the Arctic.
Updated emissions data and improved atmospheric modeling highlight why rapid reductions in black carbon remain essential for effective Arctic and global climate policy. Full schedule below!
Updated emissions data and improved atmospheric modeling highlight why rapid reductions in black carbon remain essential for effective Arctic and global climate policy. Full schedule below!
November 12, 2025 at 1:25 AM
This morning’s session at the #COP30 Cryosphere Pavilion discussed the impacts of black carbon in the Arctic.
Updated emissions data and improved atmospheric modeling highlight why rapid reductions in black carbon remain essential for effective Arctic and global climate policy. Full schedule below!
Updated emissions data and improved atmospheric modeling highlight why rapid reductions in black carbon remain essential for effective Arctic and global climate policy. Full schedule below!
Here are some photos from last year's Cryosphere Pavilion.
Key topics – including ice sheets and sea-level rise, mountain glaciers and snow, permafrost, sea ice, and polar oceans – were featured in more than 70 side events. Our team of ECS volunteers helped ensure everything ran smoothly.
Key topics – including ice sheets and sea-level rise, mountain glaciers and snow, permafrost, sea ice, and polar oceans – were featured in more than 70 side events. Our team of ECS volunteers helped ensure everything ran smoothly.
August 1, 2025 at 11:23 PM
Here are some photos from last year's Cryosphere Pavilion.
Key topics – including ice sheets and sea-level rise, mountain glaciers and snow, permafrost, sea ice, and polar oceans – were featured in more than 70 side events. Our team of ECS volunteers helped ensure everything ran smoothly.
Key topics – including ice sheets and sea-level rise, mountain glaciers and snow, permafrost, sea ice, and polar oceans – were featured in more than 70 side events. Our team of ECS volunteers helped ensure everything ran smoothly.
Calling all Early Career Scientists!
We are offering an opportunity to bring your science to policymakers #COP30 by volunteering at the 2025 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Applications close Monday, September 1:
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Please share widely!
We are offering an opportunity to bring your science to policymakers #COP30 by volunteering at the 2025 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Applications close Monday, September 1:
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Please share widely!
August 1, 2025 at 10:52 PM
Calling all Early Career Scientists!
We are offering an opportunity to bring your science to policymakers #COP30 by volunteering at the 2025 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Applications close Monday, September 1:
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Please share widely!
We are offering an opportunity to bring your science to policymakers #COP30 by volunteering at the 2025 Cryosphere Pavilion!
Applications close Monday, September 1:
iccinet.org/cop30-cryosp...
Please share widely!
“That world is within reach, but it won’t happen on its own. Not fast enough. Not fair enough. It is up to us. This is our moment of opportunity.”
Watch the full special address here: www.youtube.com/live/4yYpxMi...
Watch the full special address here: www.youtube.com/live/4yYpxMi...
July 22, 2025 at 7:33 PM
“That world is within reach, but it won’t happen on its own. Not fast enough. Not fair enough. It is up to us. This is our moment of opportunity.”
Watch the full special address here: www.youtube.com/live/4yYpxMi...
Watch the full special address here: www.youtube.com/live/4yYpxMi...
To save the cryosphere, we need to speed up the transition from fossil fuels in this year’s NDCs at COP30 🇧🇷
UNSG António Guterres delivered a landmark special address and launched a new report this morning: www.un.org/en/climatech...
UNSG António Guterres delivered a landmark special address and launched a new report this morning: www.un.org/en/climatech...
July 22, 2025 at 7:33 PM
To save the cryosphere, we need to speed up the transition from fossil fuels in this year’s NDCs at COP30 🇧🇷
UNSG António Guterres delivered a landmark special address and launched a new report this morning: www.un.org/en/climatech...
UNSG António Guterres delivered a landmark special address and launched a new report this morning: www.un.org/en/climatech...
Antarctic and Southern Ocean stability is critical not only for the polar ice sheet but also global ecosystems and communities
We are attending #ATCM47 as part of ASOC, the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, providing scientific advice to inform decision making 🇦🇶
@antarcticasouth.bsky.social
We are attending #ATCM47 as part of ASOC, the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, providing scientific advice to inform decision making 🇦🇶
@antarcticasouth.bsky.social
June 26, 2025 at 4:54 PM
Antarctic and Southern Ocean stability is critical not only for the polar ice sheet but also global ecosystems and communities
We are attending #ATCM47 as part of ASOC, the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, providing scientific advice to inform decision making 🇦🇶
@antarcticasouth.bsky.social
We are attending #ATCM47 as part of ASOC, the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, providing scientific advice to inform decision making 🇦🇶
@antarcticasouth.bsky.social
Today ICCI's Antarctic Director shared the latest science in #ATCM discussions, stating that geoengineering is not a solution to Antarctic ice loss.
She stressed the need to avoid exploiting sensitive Antarctic environments as a means to experiment with geoengineering interventions.
She stressed the need to avoid exploiting sensitive Antarctic environments as a means to experiment with geoengineering interventions.
June 25, 2025 at 8:21 PM
Today ICCI's Antarctic Director shared the latest science in #ATCM discussions, stating that geoengineering is not a solution to Antarctic ice loss.
She stressed the need to avoid exploiting sensitive Antarctic environments as a means to experiment with geoengineering interventions.
She stressed the need to avoid exploiting sensitive Antarctic environments as a means to experiment with geoengineering interventions.