The eyeball is not rigid and deforms during saccades. As a consequence, the saccade waveform recorded by an eye tracker may depend on which structure of the eye is used to estimate eyeball rotation. Here, we systematically describe and compare signals co-recorded from the retina, the cornea (corneal reflection, CR), the pupil, and the lens (fourth Purkinje reflection, P4) during saccades. We found that several commonly used parameters for saccade characterization differ systematically across the signals. For instance, saccades in the retinal signal had earlier onsets compared to saccades in the pupil and the P4 signals. The retinal signal had the smallest saccade amplitude and reached the peak saccade velocity earlier compared to the other signals. At the end of saccades, the retinal signal came to a stop faster than the other signals. We discuss possible explanations that may account for the relationship between the retinal signal and the other signals.

Leonardo de Vinci is considered one of the greatest artists that has ever lived. His work includes the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper are celebrated worldwide. His talents expand beyond his art and his contributions to disciplines such as engineering, astronomy, geometry, botany, geology have revealed is him as a polymath. One discipline where he devoted a considerable amount of time and effort was anatomy. His anatomical notes and drawings can be paralleled to texts books of today. This review explores Leonardo da Vinci’s significant contributions to the study of human anatomy, with a particular focus on reproductive anatomy. Leonardo’s meticulous dissections and detailed anatomical sketches, despite being influenced by the limited scientific understanding and constraints of his time, reveal his deep curiosity and innovative approach. His work, though not widely recognised during his lifetime, laid foundational insights into neuroanatomy, the cardiovascular system, and foetal development. He had a particular interest in reproduction and the genitourinary anatomy and made many anatomical studies in this area. The review also examines the challenges Leonardo faced, such as the lack of preservation techniques and the influence of Galenic teachings, which led to both groundbreaking observations and notable inaccuracies in his anatomical studies or the reproductive system.

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