A highly scalable approach is used to generate 3,000 genome-wide maps of transcription factor binding in ten flowering plants, along with multi-species single-nucleus RNA-seq atlases. Together, the re...

Early maize planting requires cold tolerance in temperate regions, which elite maize lacks. Extending the growing season could boost productivity along with more efficient nutrient use. Wild PACMAD gr...

The growing availability of genomes from non-model organisms offers new opportunities to identify functional loci underlying trait variation through comparative genomics. While cis-regulatory regions drive much of phenotypic evolution, linking them to specific functions remains challenging. We identified 514 cis-regulatory motifs enriched in regulatory regions of five diverse grass species, with 73% consistently enriched across all, suggesting a deeply conserved regulatory code. We then quantified conservation of specific motif instances across 589 grass species, revealing widespread gain and loss over evolutionary time. Conservation declined rapidly over the first few million years of divergence, yet ~50% of motif instances were conserved back to the origin of grasses ~100 million years ago. Conservation patterns varied by gene class, with modestly higher conservation at transcription factor genes. To test for adaptive cis-regulatory changes, we used phylogenetic mixed models to identify motif gains and losses associated with ecological niche transitions. Our models revealed polygenic adaptation across 810 motif-orthogroup combinations, including convergent gains of HSF/GARP motifs at an Alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase gene associated with adaptation to temperate environments. Our results support a model in which cis-regulatory evolution involves extensive turnover of individual binding site instances while largely preserving transcription factors' binding preferences. Convergent cis-regulatory changes at hundreds to thousands of genes likely contribute to environmental adaptation. Our results highlight the potential of comparative genomics and phylogenetic mixed models to reveal the genetic basis of complex traits. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. National Science Foundation, https://ror.org/021nxhr62, 1822330, 2139899, 1907343 United States Department of Agriculture, , 8062-21000-052-004-A, 8062-21000-052-000-D National Institutes of Health, , 1R00GM144742

The growing availability of genomes from non-model organisms offers new opportunities to identify functional loci underlying trait variation through comparative genomics. While cis-regulatory regions ...